科技情報研究所工資

介紹 (Introduction)

Providing a formal definition of Intelligence can be a quite intimidating task. In fact, no common agreement about this topic has been reached so far. Since the beginning of the human history, different definitions of intelligence have been proposed and these varied depending on the historical time and culture. For example, in a society in which language and communication skills play an important role, an individual donated of these kinds of skills might be recognised as to be “more intelligent” than others. In the meantime, in a society in which numerical skills are valued most other individuals might be regarded as to be “more intelligent”.

提供有關智力的正式定義可能是一項非常艱巨的任務。 實際上，到目前為止，尚未就此話題達成共識。 自人類歷史開始以來，就提出了不同的智力定義，這些定義根據歷史時間和文化而有所不同。 例如，在一個語言和交流技能起著重要作用的社會中，捐贈此類技能的個人可能被認為比其他人“更聰明”。 同時，在一個重視數字技能的社會中，大多數其他人可能被視為“更聰明”。

As a practical demonstration of this trend, we can consider that in the recent past (until around 1960) it was necessary to know Latin in order to be admitted in some Universities (even for technical courses) while nowadays it is not recognised anymore as a prerequisite. This change might have then taken place since the society shifted his interest from humanities subjects to more technical subjects due to the recent technological innovations.

作為這種趨勢的實際例證，我們可以認為，在最近的一段時間(直到1960年左右)，有必要了解拉丁語才能被某些大學(甚至是技術課程)錄取，而如今它已不再被公認為先決條件。 由于社會由于最近的技術創新將他的興趣從人文學科轉移到了更多的技術學科，因此可能發生了這種變化。

“Everyone is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid.” [1]

“每個人都是天才。 但是，如果您以一條魚爬樹的能力來判斷它，那么它會終生相信它是愚蠢的。” [1]

—Unknown

-未知

Because of these discrepancies in measuring human intelligence, standardised tests such as the Intelligent Quotient (IQ) test have been created. These types of tests are for instance commonly used nowadays in order to evaluate job applicants and detect intellectual disabilities.

由于在測量人類智能方面存在這些差異，因此創建了標準化測試，例如智能商(IQ)測試。 這些類型的測試是例如當今普遍使用的，以便評估求職者和發現智力障礙。

人工智能的誕生 (The inception of Artificial Intelligence)

Alan Turing Imitation Game is nowadays considered to be one of the first attempts to define an Intelligent System. According to the Imitation Game (Turing Test) in fact, a system can be considered to be intelligent if able to exchange messages with an interrogator without letting him/her understand its not human nature. This definition of an intelligent system provides although some limitations since for example, it assumes that the system should be able to express a human-like form of intelligence, even though human intelligence is theoretically not the only possible form of an intelligent system.

如今，Alan Turing模仿游戲被認為是定義智能系統的首批嘗試之一。 實際上，根據模仿游戲(圖靈測試)，如果能夠與詢問者交換消息而又不讓詢問者了解其非人性，則該系統可以被認為是智能的。 盡管例如從理論上說，它假定系統應該能夠表達類似人的形式的智能，但是智能系統的這種定義提供了一些限制，盡管從理論上講，人的智能并不是智能系統的唯一可能形式。

From this point onward, two different approaches developed in order to try to recreate intelligent systems: symbolism (which emphasises on the use of a formal logic) and connectivism (which aims to reproduce intellectual abilities using a simplified model of the brain functionalities).

從這一點開始，開發了兩種不同的方法來嘗試重建智能系統： 象征主義 (強調使用形式邏輯)和連接 主義 (旨在使用簡化的大腦功能模型來復制智力)。

Thanks to the symbolic approach, projects such as Shakey the robot have been realised, while thanks to the connectivist approach Artificial Neural Networks and nowadays Deep Learning models have been constructed (Figure 1). One of the first successful examples of a system able to express intelligent behaviour, is Arthur Samuel checkers playing program. This program was in fact successfully able to learn to play at a good level the checkers game using heuristic search (Mini-Max algorithm). Samuel additionally included different features in order to train his program which resembles to some extent an early approach to Reinforcement Learning. In fact, the program was able to successfully play against himself and learn from its past mistakes in order to make improvements.

由于采用了象征性的方法，因此實現了諸如Shakey機器人之類的項目，而由于采用了連接主義方法的人工神經網絡和當今的深度學習模型已經得以構建(圖1)。 能夠表達智能行為的系統的首批成功示例之一是Arthur Samuel跳棋演奏程序。 實際上，該程序能夠使用啟發式搜索(Mini-Max算法)成功學習高水平的跳棋游戲。 塞繆爾(Samuel)另外還包括不同的功能，以便訓練他的程序，在某種程度上類似于強化學習的早期方法。 實際上，該程序能夠成功地與自己對戰，并從過去的錯誤中吸取教訓，以進行改進。

Figure 1: Artificial Intelligence Timeline [2]圖1：人工智能時間表[2]

生物學觀點 (A biological perspective)

Until the early 1980s, scientists tried to create intelligent machines by using a top-down approach (eg. trying to directly imitate complex systems behaviours such as the ones of human beings). Although, this approach resulted to lead to various limitations such as:

直到1980年代初，科學家一直試圖通過使用自上而下的方法來創建智能機器(例如，試圖直接模仿復雜的系統行為，例如人類的行為)。 雖然，這種方法導致了各種限制，例如：

• Slow reaction times in changing environments.
  在不斷變化的環境中React時間慢。
• Limited ability to adequately scale increasing the difficulty of the challenge.
  適當擴展的能力有限，增加了挑戰的難度。
• Need for high memory requirements when trying to solve a problem through search or retrieving information from a substantially large lookup table.
  當試圖通過從相當大的查找表中搜索或檢索信息來解決問題時，需要很高的內存要求。

An alternative approach (as advocated by Brooks) could be to instead try to imitate simple biological organisms key characteristics (bottom-up approach). In this way, our system would not need to have any hierarchical system and could be able to guarantee faster reaction times in changing environments (like most environments in the real world actually are). Finally, another possible way of creating Intelligent systems inspired from biology are Evolutionary algorithms.

一種替代方法(如布魯克斯所倡導的)可以是嘗試模仿簡單生物的關鍵特征(自下而上的方法)。 這樣，我們的系統將不需要具有任何分層系統，并且能夠保證在變化的環境中(如現實世界中的大多數環境實際上)具有更快的響應時間。 最后，進化算法是創建受生物學啟發的智能系統的另一種可能方式。

結論 (Conclusion)

Over the last century, many connectivist and symbolic implementations of Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems have been implemented in the hope to create Intelligent systems (Figure 2). Although, still nowadays we can’t be sure if using either (or both) of these two approaches it would ever be possible to create a Strong AI system.

在過去的一個世紀中，已經實現了許多人工智能(AI)系統的連接主義和符號實現，以期希望創建智能系統(圖2)。 雖然，時至今日，我們仍不確定是否使用這兩種方法中的一種(或兩種)都可以創建強大的AI系統。

Figure 2: Symbolic vs Connectivist Research Publications over time [3]圖2：隨著時間的流逝，象征性研究與連接主義研究的出版物[3]

A Reinforcement and Online Learning approach might provide the best possible way in order to tackle such a task. In fact, this can be considered as the closest approach able to mimic how biological systems learn:

強化和在線學習方法可能會提供最好的方法來解決這一任務。 實際上，這可以被認為是能夠模仿生物系統如何學習的最接近的方法：

• Through their past experiences (using a reward/punishment mechanism).
  通過他們過去的經驗(使用獎勵/懲罰機制)。
• Continuously, considering one stimulus (or a small sample) at the time (unlike Deep Learning Systems which are trained all at once and with huge amounts of data).
  不斷地，同時考慮一次刺激(或少量樣本)(不同于深度訓練系統，后者需要一次訓練并且具有大量數據)。

I hope you enjoyed this article, thank you for reading!

希望您喜歡這篇文章，感謝您的閱讀！

聯絡人 (Contacts)

If you want to keep updated with my latest articles and projects follow me on Medium and subscribe to my mailing list. These are some of my contacts details:

如果您想隨時了解我的最新文章和項目 跟我來中 并訂閱我的 郵件列表 。 這些是我的一些聯系方式：

• Linkedin

  領英

• Personal Blog

  個人博客

• Personal Website

  個人網站

• Medium Profile

  中檔

• GitHub

  的GitHub

• Kaggle

  卡格勒

參考書目 (Bibliography)

[1] Everybody is a Genius. But If You Judge a Fish by Its Ability to Climb a Tree, It Will Live Its Whole Life Believing that It is Stupid Quote Investigator, Tracing Quotations. Accessed at: https://quoteinvestigator.com/2013/04/06/fish-climb/

[1]每個人都是天才。 但是，如果您通過魚類爬樹的能力來判斷它，那么它會終生相信它是愚蠢的報價調查員，可以追蹤報價。 訪問網址 ： https : //quoteinvestigator.com/2013/04/06/fish-climb/

[2] Artificial Intelligence Timeline Infographic — From Eliza to Tay and beyond, Digitalwellbeing.org — Dr Paul Marsden. Accessed at: https://digitalwellbeing.org/artificial-intelligence-timeline-infographic-from-eliza-to-tay-and-beyond/

[2]人工智能時間軸圖-從Eliza到Tay以及其他地區，Digitalwellbeing.org-Paul Marsden博士。 訪問網址 ： https : //digitalwellbeing.org/artificial-intelligence-timeline-infographic-from-eliza-to-tay-and-beyond/

[3] NEURONS SPIKE BACK, The Invention of Inductive Machines and the Artificial Intelligence Controversy Dominique CARDON, Jean-Philippe COINTET, Antoine MAZIèRES. Accessed at: https://neurovenge.antonomase.fr/NeuronsSpikeBack.pdf

[3]神經元回擊，感應機器的發明和人工智能的爭議Dominique CARDON，讓-菲利普·科廷(Jean-Philippe COINTET)，安托萬·馬濟耶斯(Antoine MAZIRES)。 訪問網址：https://neurovenge.antonomase.fr/NeuronsSpikeBack.pdf

翻譯自: https://towardsdatascience.com/what-do-we-mean-by-intelligence-f69673f1559e

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